Unix in World

Now gmail can support up to 25000 contacts

2011-05-08T02:17:00.000-07:00

WOW! Now gmail can support up to 25000 contacts
Previously it was 10,000. Yahoo! only support 5000 contacts with their bad product!
Store up to 25,000 contacts - Official Gmail Blog

Blogger Buzz: What’s New With Blogger

2011-03-18T20:28:00.000-07:00

Blogger Buzz: What’s New With Blogger: "in"

Official Google Blog: Finding more high-quality sites in search

2011-03-09T01:13:00.000-08:00

Google has changed SEO ranking in US.

Official Google Blog: Finding more high-quality sites in search

Official Google Blog: Our new search index: Caffeine

2010-07-07T20:44:00.000-07:00

Google announced the completion of a new web indexing system called Caffeine. Caffeine provides 50 percent fresher results for web searches than our last index, and it's the largest collection of web content we've offered. Whether it's a news story, a blog or a forum post, you can now find links to relevant content much sooner after it is published than was possible ever before.
Details in
Official Google Blog: Our new search index: Caffeine

Official Google Blog: Translate Google Sites with one click

2010-01-15T02:00:00.000-08:00

http://arjudba.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-to-add-google-translate-gadget-to.html

Things to Remember after becoming root user on Linux

2009-12-09T03:56:00.001-08:00

$HOME is / (Watch what you delete!)
Change the password frequently and use "good" passwords (more on this later)
Remove the current working directory (a.k.a., ".") from your PATH
Never leave the terminal unattended, even for "just a minute"
Limit who has the root password to as few people as possible
Never execute any regular user's program as root (possible Trojan Horse)
Never let anyone else run a command as root, even if you are watching them
You risk having your password stolen by "sniffers" if you use programs like "telnet", "ftp", access email remotely with POP/IMAP (anything protocol involving "clear-text" passwords)

List of Common Linux System Administration Tasks.

2009-12-09T03:55:00.000-08:00

Performing backups
Adding and removing users
Adding and removing hardware
Restoring files from backups that users have accidentally deleted
Installing new software
Answering users' questions
Monitoring system activity, disc use and log files
Figuring out why a program has stopped working since yesterday, even though the user didn't change anything; honest!
Monitoring system security
Adding new systems to the network
Talking with vendors to determine if a problem is yours or theirs, and getting them to fix it when it is their problem
Figuring out why "the network" (or "Pine", or "the computer") is so slow
Trying to free up disc space
Rebooting the system after a crash (usually happens when you are at home or have to catch a bus)
Writing scripts to automate as many of the above tasks as possible

List of Blogging Softwares

2009-12-08T08:47:00.000-08:00

There are too many Free Blogs in the Internet world. You can call these as Blogs on Cool Domains

Here goes the lists of blogs.

++ Subdomains

++++ Various

http://spaces.msn.com/
http://www.blogeasy.com/
http://www.easyjournal.com/
http://www.vnunet.com/blogs/
http://multiply.com/
http://www.blog-city.com/bc/
http://www.blogharbor.com/
http://bloghi.com/
http://bloghorn.com/
http://www.blogspirit.com/
http://www.blogsource.com/
http://www.ebloggy.com/
http://www.pitas.com/
http://www.blogger.de/

++++ Wordpress

http://www.blogsome.com/
http://weblogs.us/
http://www.wordpress.com
http://www.wpblogs.com/
http://www.blogthing.com/
http://globbo.org/
http://www.theblog.cc/
http://learnerblogs.org/
http://uniblogs.org/
http://edublogs.org
http://hrblogs.org/
http://beblogger.com/
http://www.evilsupergenius.net/

++++ Blogger

http://www.blogcafe.com/
http://www.blogspot.com

++++ Other

(These seem to belong in the same network)
http://www.weblogs.hu/
http://www.weblogs.cz/
http://www.blogs.ro/
http://www.weblogs.pl/
http://www.blogs.fi/
http://www.blogs.no/
http://www.blogs.dk/
http://www.blogs.se/
http://www.blog.com.es/
http://www.blog.de/
http://www.blog.com/
http://www.blog.co.uk/
http://www.blog.ca/

++ Subdirectories

http://members.freewebs.com/
http://www.livejournal.com/
http://www.20six.co.uk/
http://www.xanga.com/
http://www.aeonity.com/
http://www.bloggercrab.com/
http://www.upsaid.com/

Here is the blogs based on functions.

1)Danga Software Powered

GreatestJournal.com – Based on the same software as LiveJournal, offers free voice posts, 1GB of photo hosting, and space for up to 2,000 user icons.

InsaneJournal.com – Another site based on the Danga software that runs LiveJournal, offers free and paid accounts, paid benefits are only enhancements.

JorunalFen.net – Runs on the Danga platform, very much directed towards various “fandoms” (i.e.Harry Potter, various Television shows) and is meant for users 18 and older.

LiveJournal.com – One of the most well known of the blogging hosts. Offers multiple account types such as ad-supported and paid. The center of a few controversies recently.

2)Themed Blog Sites
BlogDive.com - A site about blogging

Blogabond.com – A site dedicated to travel blogs with map integration and more.
BlogCheese.com – A video blogging website.
BusyThumbs.com – A blog site specifically for your text messages and camera phone images.
Freevlog – Designed for video blogging and completely free.
Trippert.com – Create and share blogs of your travels.
Ufem.com – Blogging site specifically geared towards women. Offers multiple themes and plugins.
Word Count Journal.com – A new blogging format that is also part challenge. Write one word on the first day, two words on the second day and so on, at the end of the year you’ll have written 66,795 words.
Xanco.com – Another moblogging site for you to share all your mobile communications with friends and family.

3)Wordpress Powered

Blogetery.com – Offers multiple templates, anti-spam, free sub-domain and more.
BlogRox.com – Runs on WordPress and offers 50MB of free online space.
Blogsome.com – Based out of Ireland, this site uses the WordPress MU platform, large choice of themes.
Edublogs.com – WordPress powered blogging for educators.
WordPress.com – Not only can you install WordPress on your own sites, you can use the same software on their site and save yourself all of the technical work.

4)Various Platforms

Blog.com – Offers free blog hosting with unlimited bandwidth for their free package, more benefits for paid members.
Blog Ladder.com – All blog entries show up on the main ladder as well as inside your own blog.
Blogger.com – A great starting site to get a taste of blogging, very easy to use.
Blogr.com – Allows you to blog, host photos & videos, and podcasts.
BlogSpirit.com – European based blogging site, offers 30-day trial and subscription thereafter, but offers quite a bit of storage.
Blogster.com – Offers free image hosting in addition to free blogs.
BlogYx.com – Blogging site with extras such as chat boxes so you can interact with your readers.
Bloki.com – Lets you build a blog site and even open it up for collaboration.
Bravenet.com – Free blog hosting with RSS feeds and more.
ClearBlogs.com – Free blog hosting and offers templates, friends only posts, IP-Banning and more.
Etribes.com – Based in Europe, allows you to create all sorts of websites including a blog.
Multiply.com – Mixes blogging and social networking, with photo galleries and more.
Netcipia.com – Free blog and wiki for private or public display with 2GB of storage.
Open Diary.com – Offers unlimited storage and posts, low cost subscription rates for advanced features.
ShoutPost.com – A platform for creating blogs with a focus on generating traffic.
SoulCast.com – Have something you want to talk about, but want to say it anonymously? This may be the blogging site for you.
Squarespace.com – Lets you build your blog with numerous themes, also allows you to add other site features.
Terapad.com – Offers blogs as well as features such as an integrated store.
Tooum.com – Fully integrated blog and forum which allows for seamless discussion between the two.
Tumblr.com – A blog platform with a focus on allowing media-rich posts.
Weebly.com – Allows you to create a site and blog, free hosting and change designs on the fly.
Windows Live Spaces – Free blogging with your MSN account, only drawback is readers have to have an account also.
Vox.com – Part of the SixApart family of blogging sites, very much geared towards the personal journal types of blogs.
Xanga.com – Part social network, part blogging, all free.
Yahoo 360 – Part of your Yahoo account and features easy publishing.
Zoomshare.com – Free blog hosting with 250MB of free storage.

Career with Medical

2009-11-24T06:02:00.000-08:00

In the relatively static societies before modernism, many workers would often inherit or take up a single lifelong position (a place or role) in the workforce, and the concept of an unfolding career had little or no meaning. With the spread during the Enlightenment of the idea of progress and of the habits of individualist self-betterment, careers became possible, if not expected.
By the late 20th century a plethora of choices (especially in the range of potential professions) and more widespread education had allowed it to become fashionable to plan (or design) a career: in this respect the careers of the career counsellor and of the career advisor have grown up. It is also not uncommon for adults in the late 20th/early 21st centuries to have dual or multiple careers, either sequentially or concurrently. Thus, professional identities have become hyphenated or hybridized to reflect this shift in work ethic. Economist Richard Florida notes this trend generally and more specifically among the "creative class."

Many bright and motivated college students describe a "dream career" with the following characteristics:

Service: Allows you to help people and advance knowledge.
Action: Doesn't tie you to a desk all the time.
Respect: Your work and contributions are an important part of your community.
Security: Enables you to earn a good living with a secure future.
Mobility: Your skills and knowledge are in demand, wherever you choose to live.
Flexibility: Offers you lots of career options.
Few occupations meet all of these standards. None meets them better than a career in medicine.

Doctors diagnose illnesses and treat people who suffer from injury or disease. Their professional lives are filled with caring for people, keeping up with advances in medicine, and working as a part of a health care team. Every day in communities around the country, doctors work in neighborhood clinics, hospitals, offices, even homeless shelters and schools. Few fields offer a wider variety of opportunities.

About one-third of the nation's physicians are primary care doctors who provide lifelong medical services for the entire family. General internists, family physicians, and general pediatricians are all considered primary care doctors. They are the first doctors people consult for medical care. And they are trained to provide the wide range of services children and adults need. When patients' specific health needs require further treatment, primary care physicians send them to see a specialist physician.

Specialist physicians differ from primary care physicians in that they focus on treating a particular system or part of the body. Surgeons who treat injuries, disease and deformities by performing operative procedures, neurologists who treat disorders of the brain and spinal cord, cardiologists who treat the heart and blood vessels, and ophthalmologists who treat the eye are just a few examples of the many specialties in medicine. These physicians work together with primary care physicians to ensure that patients receive treatment for specific medical problems as well as complete and comprehensive care throughout life. For information about these and other medical specialties visit Careers in Medicine.

Physicians also do many other things. Physician researchers are at work today developing new treatments for cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases like AIDS. Academic physicians share their skills and wisdom by teaching medical students and residents. Others work with health maintenance organizations, pharmaceutical companies, medical device manufacturers, health insurance companies, or in corporations directing health and safety programs. People with medical skills are in demand everywhere.

Knowing where to go for school is half the battle, especially with degrees that involve accreditation and licenses of any sort. For instance, I found some dms programs out there that might help some of you if you’re interested in going into the medical career. They have several different core programs that you can choose from; MRI technology, psychiatric technician, radiologic technology, ultrasound technology and vocational nursing.

You’re sure to find something here that fits what you want to do for the rest of your life, provided that it falls within these parameters! If I were you, and if I were interested in any of these careers, I’d go and check this site out. They have four different campuses, which make commuting easy!

init, telinit, runlevel, shutdown, service process control command

2009-11-04T08:04:00.000-08:00

init

The init command is the parent of all processes. Called in the final step of a bootup, init determines the runlevel of the system from /etc/inittab. Invoked by its alias telinit, and by root only.

telinit

Symlinked to init, this is a means of changing the system runlevel, usually done for system maintenance or emergency filesystem repairs. Invoked only by root. This command can be dangerous -- be certain you understand it well before using!

runlevel

Shows the current and last runlevel, that is, whether the system is halted (runlevel 0), in single-user mode (1), in multi-user mode (2 or 3), in X Windows (5), or rebooting (6). This command accesses the /var/run/utmp file.

halt, shutdown, reboot

Command set to shut the system down, usually just prior to a power down.

On some Linux distros, the halt command has 755 permissions, so it can be invoked by a non-root user. A careless halt in a terminal or a script may shut down the system!

service

Starts or stops a system service. The startup scripts in /etc/init.d and /etc/rc.d use this command to start services at bootup.

root# /sbin/service iptables stop

Flushing firewall rules:                                   [  OK  ]

 Setting chains to policy ACCEPT: filter                    [  OK  ]

 Unloading iptables modules:                                [  OK  ]

ps, pgrep, pkill, pstree, top, nice, nohup, pidof, fuser, cron command

2009-11-04T08:00:00.000-08:00

Process Statistics: lists currently executing processes by owner and PID (process ID). This is usually invoked with ax or aux options, and may be piped to grep or sed to search for a specific process.

bash$  ps ax | grep sendmail

295 ?      S      0:00 sendmail: accepting connections on port 25

To display system processes in graphical "tree" format: ps afjx or ps ax --forest.

pgrep, pkill

Combining the ps command with grep or kill.

bash$ ps a | grep mingetty

2212 tty2     Ss+    0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty2

 2213 tty3     Ss+    0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty3

 2214 tty4     Ss+    0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty4

 2215 tty5     Ss+    0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty5

 2216 tty6     Ss+    0:00 /sbin/mingetty tty6

 4849 pts/2    S+     0:00 grep mingetty

bash$ pgrep mingetty

2212 mingetty

 2213 mingetty

 2214 mingetty

 2215 mingetty

 2216 mingetty

Compare the action of pkill with killall.

pstree

Lists currently executing processes in "tree" format. The -p option shows the PIDs, as well as the process names.

top

Continuously updated display of most cpu-intensive processes. The -b option displays in text mode, so that the output may be parsed or accessed from a script.

bash$ top -b

  8:30pm  up 3 min,  3 users,  load average: 0.49, 0.32, 0.13

 45 processes: 44 sleeping, 1 running, 0 zombie, 0 stopped

 CPU states: 13.6% user,  7.3% system,  0.0% nice, 78.9% idle

 Mem:    78396K av,   65468K used,   12928K free,       0K shrd,    2352K buff

 Swap:  157208K av,       0K used,  157208K free                   37244K cached

   PID USER     PRI  NI  SIZE  RSS SHARE STAT %CPU %MEM   TIME COMMAND

   848 bozo      17   0   996  996   800 R     5.6  1.2   0:00 top

     1 root       8   0   512  512   444 S     0.0  0.6   0:04 init

     2 root       9   0     0    0     0 SW    0.0  0.0   0:00 keventd

...

nice

Run a background job with an altered priority. Priorities run from 19 (lowest) to -20 (highest). Only root may set the negative (higher) priorities. Related commands are renice and snice, which change the priority of a running process or processes, and skill, which sends a kill signal to a process or processes.

nohup

Keeps a command running even after user logs off. The command will run as a foreground process unless followed by &. If you use nohup within a script, consider coupling it with a wait to avoid creating an orphan or zombie process.

pidof

Identifies process ID (PID) of a running job. Since job control commands, such as kill and renice act on the PID of a process (not its name), it is sometimes necessary to identify that PID. The pidof command is the approximate counterpart to the $PPID internal variable.

bash$ pidof xclock

Example. pidof helps kill a process

#!/bin/bash

# kill-process.sh

NOPROCESS=2

process=xxxyyyzzz  # Use nonexistent process.

# For demo purposes only...

# ... don't want to actually kill any actual process with this script.

# If, for example, you wanted to use this script to logoff the Internet,

#     process=pppd

t=`pidof $process`       # Find pid (process id) of $process.

# The pid is needed by 'kill' (can't 'kill' by program name).

if [ -z "$t" ]           # If process not present, 'pidof' returns null.

then

  echo "Process $process was not running."

  echo "Nothing killed."

  exit $NOPROCESS

fi

kill $t                  # May need 'kill -9' for stubborn process.

# Need a check here to see if process allowed itself to be killed.

# Perhaps another " t=`pidof $process` " or ...

# This entire script could be replaced by

#        kill $(pidof -x process_name)

# or

#        killall process_name

# but it would not be as instructive.

exit 0

fuser

Identifies the processes (by PID) that are accessing a given file, set of files, or directory. May also be invoked with the -k option, which kills those processes. This has interesting implications for system security, especially in scripts preventing unauthorized users from accessing system services.

bash$ fuser -u /usr/bin/vim

/usr/bin/vim:         3207e(bozo)

bash$ fuser -u /dev/null

/dev/null:            3009(bozo)  3010(bozo)  3197(bozo)  3199(bozo)

One important application for fuser is when physically inserting or removing storage media, such as CD ROM disks or USB flash drives. Sometimes trying a umount fails with a device is busy error message. This means that some user(s) and/or process(es) are accessing the device. An fuser -um /dev/device_namewill clear up the mystery, so you can kill any relevant processes.

bash$ umount /mnt/usbdrive

umount: /mnt/usbdrive: device is busy

bash$ fuser -um /dev/usbdrive

/mnt/usbdrive:        1772c(bozo)

bash$ kill -9 1772

bash$ umount /mnt/usbdrive

The fuser command, invoked with the -n option identifies the processes accessing a port. This is especially useful in combination with nmap.

root# nmap localhost.localdomain

PORT     STATE SERVICE

 25/tcp   open  smtp

root# fuser -un tcp 25

25/tcp:               2095(root)

root# ps ax | grep 2095 | grep -v grep

2095 ?        Ss     0:00 sendmail: accepting connections

cron

Administrative program scheduler, performing such duties as cleaning up and deleting system log files and updating the slocate database. This is the superuserversion of at (although each user may have their own crontab file which can be changed with the crontab command). It runs as a daemon and executes scheduled entries from /etc/crontab.

System log information in linux using logger and logrotate

2009-11-04T06:18:00.000-08:00

logger

Appends a user-generated message to the system log (/var/log/messages). You do not have to beroot to invoke logger.

logger Experiencing instability in network connection at 23:10, 05/21. # Now, do a 'tail /var/log/messages'.

By embedding a logger command in a script, it is possible to write debugging information to/var/log/messages.

logger -t $0 -i Logging at line "$LINENO".

# The "-t" option specifies the tag for the logger entry.

# The "-i" option records the process ID.

# tail /var/log/message

# ...

# Jul 7 20:48:58 localhost ./test.sh[1712]: Logging at line 3.

logrotate

This utility manages the system log files, rotating, compressing, deleting, and/or e-mailing them, as appropriate. This keeps the /var/log from getting cluttered with old log files. Usually cron runs logrotateon a daily basis.

Adding an appropriate entry to /etc/logrotate.conf makes it possible to manage personal log files, as well as system-wide ones.

uname, arch, lastcomm, lastlog, strace, ltrace, nmap, nc, free, procinfo stat, sar command

2009-11-04T06:15:00.001-08:00

uname

Output system specifications (OS, kernel version, etc.) to stdout. Invoked with the -a option, gives verbose system info. The -s option shows only the OS type.

bash$ uname

Linux

bash$ uname -s

Linux

bash$ uname -a

Linux iron.bozo 2.6.15-1.2054_FC5 #1 Tue Mar 14 15:48:33 EST 2006

 i686 i686 i386 GNU/Linux

arch

Show system architecture. Equivalent to uname -m.

bash$ arch

i686

bash$ uname -m

i686

lastcomm

Gives information about previous commands, as stored in the /var/account/pacct file. Command name and user name can be specified by options. This is one of the GNU accounting utilities.

lastlog

List the last login time of all system users. This references the /var/log/lastlog file.

bash$ lastlog

root          tty1                      Fri Dec  7 18:43:21 -0700 2001

 bin                                     **Never logged in**

 daemon                                  **Never logged in**

...

 bozo          tty1                      Sat Dec  8 21:14:29 -0700 2001

bash$ lastlog | grep root

root          tty1                      Fri Dec  7 18:43:21 -0700 2001

This command will fail if the user invoking it does not have read permission for the /var/log/lastlog file.

lsof

List open files. This command outputs a detailed table of all currently open files and gives information about their owner, size, the processes associated with them, and more. Of course, lsof may be piped to grep and/or awk to parse and analyze its results.

bash$ lsof

COMMAND    PID    USER   FD   TYPE     DEVICE    SIZE     NODE NAME

 init         1    root  mem    REG        3,5   30748    30303 /sbin/init

 init         1    root  mem    REG        3,5   73120     8069 /lib/ld-2.1.3.so

 init         1    root  mem    REG        3,5  931668     8075 /lib/libc-2.1.3.so

 cardmgr    213    root  mem    REG        3,5   36956    30357 /sbin/cardmgr

...

The lsof command is a useful, if complex administrative tool. If you are unable to dismount a filesystem and get an error message that it is still in use, then running lsof helps determine which files are still open on that filesystem. The -i option lists open network socket files, and this can help trace intrusion or hack attempts.

bash$ lsof -an -i tcp

COMMAND  PID USER  FD  TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME

 firefox 2330 bozo  32u IPv4   9956       TCP 66.0.118.137:57596->67.112.7.104:http ...

 firefox 2330 bozo  38u IPv4  10535       TCP 66.0.118.137:57708->216.79.48.24:http ...

strace

System trace: diagnostic and debugging tool for tracing system calls and signals. This command and ltrace, following, are useful for diagnosing why a given program or package fails to run . . . perhaps due to missing libraries or related causes.

bash$ strace df

execve("/bin/df", ["df"], [/* 45 vars */]) = 0

 uname({sys="Linux", node="bozo.localdomain", ...}) = 0

 brk(0)                                  = 0x804f5e4

...

This is the Linux equivalent of the Solaris truss command.

ltrace

Library trace: diagnostic and debugging tool that traces library calls invoked by a given command.

bash$ ltrace df

__libc_start_main(0x804a910, 1, 0xbfb589a4, 0x804fb70, 0x804fb68 :

 setlocale(6, "")                                 = "en_US.UTF-8"

bindtextdomain("coreutils", "/usr/share/locale") = "/usr/share/locale"

textdomain("coreutils")                          = "coreutils"

__cxa_atexit(0x804b650, 0, 0, 0x8052bf0, 0xbfb58908) = 0

getenv("DF_BLOCK_SIZE")                          = NULL

...

nmap

Network mapper and port scanner. This command scans a server to locate open ports and the services associated with those ports. It can also report information about packet filters and firewalls. This is an important security tool for locking down a network against hacking attempts.

#!/bin/bash

SERVER=$HOST                           # localhost.localdomain (127.0.0.1).

PORT_NUMBER=25                         # SMTP port.

nmap $SERVER | grep -w "$PORT_NUMBER"  # Is that particular port open?

#              grep -w matches whole words only,

#+             so this wouldn't match port 1025, for example.

exit 0

# 25/tcp     open        smtp

The nc (netcat) utility is a complete toolkit for connecting to and listening to TCP and UDP ports. It is useful as a diagnostic and testing tool and as a component in simple script-based HTTP clients and servers.

bash$ nc localhost.localdomain 25

220 localhost.localdomain ESMTP Sendmail 8.13.1/8.13.1;

 Thu, 31 Mar 2005 15:41:35 -0700

Example. Checking a remote server for identd

#! /bin/sh

## Duplicate DaveG's ident-scan thingie using netcat. Oooh, he'll be p*ssed.

## Args: target port [port port port ...]

## Hose stdout _and_ stderr together.

##

##  Advantages: runs slower than ident-scan, giving remote inetd less cause

##+ for alarm, and only hits the few known daemon ports you specify.

##  Disadvantages: requires numeric-only port args, the output sleazitude,

##+ and won't work for r-services when coming from high source ports.

# Script author: Hobbit

# Used in ABS Guide with permission.

# ---------------------------------------------------

E_BADARGS=65       # Need at least two args.

TWO_WINKS=2        # How long to sleep.

THREE_WINKS=3

IDPORT=113         # Authentication "tap ident" port.

RAND1=999

RAND2=31337

TIMEOUT0=9

TIMEOUT1=8

TIMEOUT2=4

# ---------------------------------------------------

case "${2}" in

  "" ) echo "Need HOST and at least one PORT." ; exit $E_BADARGS ;;

esac

# Ping 'em once and see if they *are* running identd.

nc -z -w $TIMEOUT0 "$1" $IDPORT || \

{ echo "Oops, $1 isn't running identd." ; exit 0 ; }

#  -z scans for listening daemons.

#     -w $TIMEOUT = How long to try to connect.

# Generate a randomish base port.

RP=`expr $$ % $RAND1 + $RAND2`

TRG="$1"

shift

while test "$1" ; do

  nc -v -w $TIMEOUT1 -p ${RP} "$TRG" ${1} < /dev/null > /dev/null &

  PROC=$!

  sleep $THREE_WINKS

  echo "${1},${RP}" | nc -w $TIMEOUT2 -r "$TRG" $IDPORT 2>&1

  sleep $TWO_WINKS

# Does this look like a lamer script or what . . . ?

# ABS Guide author comments: "Ain't really all that bad . . .

#+                            kinda clever, actually."

  kill -HUP $PROC

  RP=`expr ${RP} + 1`

  shift

done

exit $?

#  Notes:

#  -----

#  Try commenting out line 30 and running this script

#+ with "localhost.localdomain 25" as arguments.

#  For more of Hobbit's 'nc' example scripts,

#+ look in the documentation:

#+ the /usr/share/doc/nc-X.XX/scripts directory.

And, of course, there's Dr. Andrew Tridgell's notorious one-line script in the BitKeeper Affair:

echo clone | nc thunk.org 5000 > e2fsprogs.dat

free

Shows memory and cache usage in tabular form. The output of this command lends itself to parsing, using grep, awk or Perl. The procinfo command shows all the information that free does, and much more.

bash$ free

                total       used       free     shared    buffers     cached

   Mem:         30504      28624       1880      15820       1608       16376

   -/+ buffers/cache:      10640      19864

   Swap:        68540       3128      65412

To show unused RAM memory:

bash$ free | grep Mem | awk '{ print $4 }'

procinfo

Extract and list information and statistics from the /proc pseudo-filesystem. This gives a very extensive and detailed listing.

bash$ procinfo | grep Bootup

Bootup: Wed Mar 21 15:15:50 2001    Load average: 0.04 0.21 0.34 3/47 6829

lsdev

List devices, that is, show installed hardware.

bash$ lsdev

Device            DMA   IRQ  I/O Ports

 ------------------------------------------------

 cascade             4     2

 dma                          0080-008f

 dma1                         0000-001f

 dma2                         00c0-00df

 fpu                          00f0-00ff

 ide0                     14  01f0-01f7 03f6-03f6

...

Show (disk) file usage, recursively. Defaults to current working directory, unless otherwise specified.

bash$ du –ach

1.0k    ./wi.sh

 1.0k    ./tst.sh

 1.0k    ./random.file

 6.0k    .

 6.0k    total

Shows filesystem usage in tabular form.

bash$ df

Filesystem           1k-blocks      Used Available Use% Mounted on

 /dev/hda5               273262     92607    166547  36% /

 /dev/hda8               222525    123951     87085  59% /home

 /dev/hda7              1408796   1075744    261488  80% /usr

dmesg

Lists all system bootup messages to stdout. Handy for debugging and ascertaining which device drivers were installed and which system interrupts in use. The output of dmesg may, of course, be parsed with grep, sed, or awk from within a script.

bash$ dmesg | grep hda

Kernel command line: ro root=/dev/hda2

 hda: IBM-DLGA-23080, ATA DISK drive

 hda: 6015744 sectors (3080 MB) w/96KiB Cache, CHS=746/128/63

 hda: hda1 hda2 hda3 <> hda4

stat

Gives detailed and verbose statistics on a given file (even a directory or device file) or set of files.

bash$ stat test.cru

  File: "test.cru"

   Size: 49970        Allocated Blocks: 100          Filetype: Regular File

   Mode: (0664/-rw-rw-r--)         Uid: (  501/ bozo)  Gid: (  501/ bozo)

 Device:  3,8   Inode: 18185     Links: 1

 Access: Sat Jun  2 16:40:24 2001

 Modify: Sat Jun  2 16:40:24 2001

 Change: Sat Jun  2 16:40:24 2001

If the target file does not exist, stat returns an error message.

bash$ stat nonexistent-file

nonexistent-file: No such file or directory

In a script, you can use stat to extract information about files (and filesystems) and set variables accordingly.

#!/bin/bash

# fileinfo2.sh

# Per suggestion of Joël Bourquard and . . .

# http://www.linuxquestions.org/questions/showthread.php?t=410766

FILENAME=testfile.txt

file_name=$(stat -c%n "$FILENAME")   # Same as "$FILENAME" of course.

file_owner=$(stat -c%U "$FILENAME")

file_size=$(stat -c%s "$FILENAME")

#  Certainly easier than using "ls -l $FILENAME"

#+ and then parsing with sed.

file_inode=$(stat -c%i "$FILENAME")

file_type=$(stat -c%F "$FILENAME")

file_access_rights=$(stat -c%A "$FILENAME")

echo "File name:          $file_name"

echo "File owner:         $file_owner"

echo "File size:          $file_size"

echo "File inode:         $file_inode"

echo "File type:          $file_type"

echo "File access rights: $file_access_rights"

exit 0

sh fileinfo2.sh

File name:          testfile.txt

File owner:         bozo

File size:          418

File inode:         1730378

File type:          regular file

File access rights: -rw-rw-r--

vmstat

Display virtual memory statistics.

bash$ vmstat

   procs                      memory    swap          io system         cpu

 r  b  w   swpd   free   buff  cache  si  so    bi    bo   in    cs  us  sy id

 0  0  0      0  11040   2636  38952   0   0    33     7  271    88   8   3 89

netstat

Show current network statistics and information, such as routing tables and active connections. This utility accesses information in /proc/net .

netstat -r is equivalent to route.

bash$ netstat

Active Internet connections (w/o servers)

 Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address           Foreign Address         State

 Active UNIX domain sockets (w/o servers)

 Proto RefCnt Flags       Type       State         I-Node Path

 unix  11     [ ]         DGRAM                    906    /dev/log

 unix  3      [ ]         STREAM     CONNECTED     4514   /tmp/.X11-unix/X0

 unix  3      [ ]         STREAM     CONNECTED     4513

 . . .

A netstat -lptu shows sockets that are listening to ports, and the associated processes. This can be useful for determining whether a computer has been hacked or compromised.

uptime

Shows how long the system has been running, along with associated statistics.

bash$ uptime

10:28pm  up  1:57,  3 users,  load average: 0.17, 0.34, 0.27

A load average of 1 or less indicates that the system handles processes immediately. A load average greater than 1 means that processes are being queued. When the load average gets above 3, then system performance is significantly degraded.

hostname

Lists the system's host name. This command sets the host name in an /etc/rc.d setup script (/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit or similar). It is equivalent to uname -n, and a counterpart to the $HOSTNAME internal variable.

bash$ hostname

localhost.localdomain

bash$ echo $HOSTNAME

localhost.localdomain

Similar to the hostname command are the domainname, dnsdomainname, nisdomainname, and ypdomainname commands. Use these to display or set the system DNS or NIS/YP domain name. Various options to hostname also perform these functions.

hostid

Echo a 32-bit hexadecimal numerical identifier for the host machine.

bash$ hosted

7f0100

This command allegedly fetches a "unique" serial number for a particular system. Certain product registration procedures use this number to brand a particular user license. Unfortunately, hostid only returns the machine network address in hexadecimal, with pairs of bytes transposed.

The network address of a typical non-networked Linux machine, is found in /etc/hosts.

bash$ cat /etc/hosts

127.0.0.1               localhost.localdomain localhost

As it happens, transposing the bytes of 127.0.0.1, we get 0.127.1.0, which translates in hex to 007f0100, the exact equivalent of what hostid returns, above. There exist only a few million other Linux machines with this identical hostid.

sar

Invoking sar (System Activity Reporter) gives a very detailed rundown on system statistics. The Santa Cruz Operation ("Old" SCO) released sar as Open Source in June, 1999.

This command is not part of the base Linux distribution, but may be obtained as part of the sysstat utilities package, written by Sebastien Godard.

bash$ sar

Linux 2.4.9 (brooks.seringas.fr)      09/26/03

10:30:00          CPU     %user     %nice   %system   %iowait     %idle

10:40:00          all      2.21     10.90     65.48      0.00     21.41

10:50:00          all      3.36      0.00     72.36      0.00     24.28

11:00:00          all      1.12      0.00     80.77      0.00     18.11

Average:          all      2.23      3.63     72.87      0.00     21.27

14:32:30          LINUX RESTART

15:00:00          CPU     %user     %nice   %system   %iowait     %idle

15:10:00          all      8.59      2.40     17.47      0.00     71.54

15:20:00          all      4.07      1.00     11.95      0.00     82.98

15:30:00          all      0.79      2.94      7.56      0.00     88.71

Average:          all      6.33      1.70     14.71      0.00     77.26

readelf

Show information and statistics about a designated elf binary. This is part of the binutils package.

bash$ readelf -h /bin/bash

ELF Header:

   Magic:   7f 45 4c 46 01 01 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

   Class:                             ELF32

   Data:                              2's complement, little endian

   Version:                           1 (current)

   OS/ABI:                            UNIX - System V

   ABI Version:                       0

   Type:                              EXEC (Executable file)

   . . .

size

The size [/path/to/binary] command gives the segment sizes of a binary executable or archive file. This is mainly of use to programmers.

bash$ size /bin/bash

   text    data     bss     dec     hex filename

  495971   22496   17392  535859   82d33 /bin/bash

tty, stty, setterm, test. setserial, getty, agetty, mesg, wall terminal commands

2009-11-04T06:00:00.000-08:00

tty

Echoes the name (filename) of the current user's terminal. Note that each separate xterm window counts as a different terminal.

bash$ tty

/dev/pts/1

stty

Shows and/or changes terminal settings. This complex command, used in a script, can control terminal behavior and the way output displays. See the info page, and study it carefully.

Example. Setting an erase character

#!/bin/bash

# erase.sh: Using "stty" to set an erase character when reading input.

echo -n "What is your name? "

read name                      #  Try to backspace

                               #+ to erase characters of input.

                               #  Problems?

echo "Your name is $name."

stty erase '#'                 #  Set "hashmark" (#) as erase character.

echo -n "What is your name? "

read name                      #  Use # to erase last character typed.

echo "Your name is $name."

exit 0

# Even after the script exits, the new key value remains set.

# Exercise: How would you reset the erase character to the default value?

Example secret password: Turning off terminal echoing

#!/bin/bash

# secret-pw.sh: secret password

echo

echo -n "Enter password "

read passwd

echo "password is $passwd"

echo -n "If someone had been looking over your shoulder, "

echo "your password would have been compromised."

echo && echo  # Two line-feeds in an "and list."

stty -echo    # Turns off screen echo.

echo -n "Enter password again "

read passwd

echo

echo "password is $passwd"

echo

stty echo     # Restores screen echo.

exit 0

# Do an 'info stty' for more on this useful-but-tricky command.

A creative use of stty is detecting a user keypress (without hitting ENTER).

Example. Keypress detection

#!/bin/bash

# keypress.sh: Detect a user keypress ("hot keys").

echo

old_tty_settings=$(stty -g)   # Save old settings (why?).

stty -icanon

Keypress=$(head -c1)          # or $(dd bs=1 count=1 2> /dev/null)

                              # on non-GNU systems

echo

echo "Key pressed was \""$Keypress"\"."

echo

stty "$old_tty_settings"      # Restore old settings.

# Thanks, Stephane Chazelas.

exit 0

terminals and modes

Normally, a terminal works in the canonical mode. When a user hits a key, the resulting character does not immediately go to the program actually running in this terminal. A buffer local to the terminal stores keystrokes. When the user hits the ENTER key, this sends all the stored keystrokes to the program running. There is even a basic line editor inside the terminal.

bash$ stty –a

speed 9600 baud; rows 36; columns 96; line = 0;

 intr = ^C; quit = ^\; erase = ^H; kill = ^U; eof = ^D; eol = ; eol2 = ;

 start = ^Q; stop = ^S; susp = ^Z; rprnt = ^R; werase = ^W; lnext = ^V; flush = ^O;

...

 isig icanon iexten echo echoe echok -echonl -noflsh -xcase -tostop -echoprt

Using canonical mode, it is possible to redefine the special keys for the local terminal line editor.

bash$ cat > filexxx

whaIfoo barhello world

bash$ cat filexxx

hello world

bash$ wc -c <>

12

The process controlling the terminal receives only 12 characters (11 alphabetic ones, plus a newline), although the user hit 26 keys.

In non-canonical ("raw") mode, every key hit (including special editing keys such as ctl-H) sends a character immediately to the controlling process.

The Bash prompt disables both icanon and echo, since it replaces the basic terminal line editor with its own more elaborate one. For example, when you hit ctl-A at the Bash prompt, there's no ^A echoed by the terminal, but Bash gets a \1 character, interprets it, and moves the cursor to the begining of the line.

Stéphane Chazelas

setterm

Set certain terminal attributes. This command writes to its terminal's stdout a string that changes the behavior of that terminal.

bash$ setterm -cursor off

bash$

The setterm command can be used within a script to change the appearance of text written to stdout, although there are certainly better tools available for this purpose.

setterm -bold on

echo bold hello

setterm -bold off

echo normal hello

tset

Show or initialize terminal settings. This is a less capable version of stty.

bash$ tset –r

Terminal type is xterm-xfree86.

 Kill is control-U (^U).

 Interrupt is control-C (^C).

setserial

Set or display serial port parameters. This command must be run by root and is usually found in a system setup script.

# From /etc/pcmcia/serial script:

IRQ=`setserial /dev/$DEVICE | sed -e 's/.*IRQ: //'`

setserial /dev/$DEVICE irq 0 ; setserial /dev/$DEVICE irq $IRQ

getty, agetty

The initialization process for a terminal uses getty or agetty to set it up for login by a user. These commands are not used within user shell scripts. Their scripting counterpart is stty.

mesg

Enables or disables write access to the current user's terminal. Disabling access would prevent another user on the network to write to the terminal.

It can be quite annoying to have a message about ordering pizza suddenly appear in the middle of the text file you are editing. On a multi-user network, you might therefore wish to disable write access to your terminal when you need to avoid interruptions.

wall

This is an acronym for "write all," i.e., sending a message to all users at every terminal logged into the network. It is primarily a system administrator's tool, useful, for example, when warning everyone that the system will shortly go down due to a problem.

bash$ wall System going down for maintenance in 5 minutes!

Broadcast message from bozo (pts/1) Sun Jul  8 13:53:27 2001...

 System going down for maintenance in 5 minutes!

If write access to a particular terminal has been disabled with mesg, then wall cannot send a message to that terminal.

Users, groups, chown, chgrp, useradd, userdel, usermod, id, who, w, last ac command

2009-11-04T05:50:00.001-08:00

Users and Groups Commands Lists

users

Show all logged on users. This is the approximate equivalent of who -q.

groups

Lists the current user and the groups she belongs to. This corresponds to the $GROUPS internal variable, but gives the group names, rather than the numbers.

bash$ groups

bozita cdrom cdwriter audio xgrp

bash$ echo $GROUPS

chown, chgrp

The chown command changes the ownership of a file or files. This command is a useful method that root can use to shift file ownership from one user to another. An ordinary user may not change the ownership of files, not even her own files.

root# chown bozo *.txt

The chgrp command changes the group ownership of a file or files. You must be owner of the file(s) as well as a member of the destination group (or root) to use this operation.

chgrp --recursive dunderheads *.data

#  The "dunderheads" group will now own all the "*.data" files

#+ all the way down the $PWD directory tree (that's what "recursive" means).

useradd, userdel

The useradd administrative command adds a user account to the system and creates a home directory for that particular user, if so specified. The corresponding userdel command removes a user account from the system [2] and deletes associated files.

The adduser command is a synonym for useradd and is usually a symbolic link to it.

usermod

Modify a user account. Changes may be made to the password, group membership, expiration date, and other attributes of a given user's account. With this command, a user's password may be locked, which has the effect of disabling the account.

groupmod

Modify a given group. The group name and/or ID number may be changed using this command.

The id command lists the real and effective user IDs and the group IDs of the user associated with the current process. This is the counterpart to the $UID,$EUID, and $GROUPS internal Bash variables.

bash$ id

uid=501(bozo) gid=501(bozo) groups=501(bozo),22(cdrom),80(cdwriter),81(audio)

bash$ echo $UID

The id command shows the effective IDs only when they differ from the real ones.

lid

The lid (list ID) command shows the group(s) that a given user belongs to, or alternately, the users belonging to a given group. May be invoked only by root.

root# lid bozo

 bozo(gid=500)

root# lid daemon

 bin(gid=1)

  daemon(gid=2)

  adm(gid=4)

  lp(gid=7)

who

Show all users logged on to the system.

bash$ who

bozo  tty1     Apr 27 17:45

 bozo  pts/0    Apr 27 17:46

 bozo  pts/1    Apr 27 17:47

 bozo  pts/2    Apr 27 17:49

The -m gives detailed information about only the current user. Passing any two arguments to who is the equivalent of who -m, as in who am i or who The Man.

bash$ who –m

localhost.localdomain!bozo  pts/2    Apr 27 17:49

whoami is similar to who -m, but only lists the user name.

bash$ whoami

bozo

Show all logged on users and the processes belonging to them. This is an extended version of who. The output of w may be piped to grep to find a specific user and/or process.

bash$ w | grep startx

bozo  tty1     -                 4:22pm  6:41   4.47s  0.45s  startx

logname

Show current user's login name (as found in /var/run/utmp). This is a near-equivalent to whoami, above.

bash$ logname

bozo

bash$ whoami

bozo

However . . .

bash$ su

Password: ......

bash# whoami

root

bash# logname

bozo

While logname prints the name of the logged in user, whoami gives the name of the user attached to the current process. As we have just seen, sometimes these are not the same.

Runs a program or script as a substitute user. su rjones starts a shell as user rjones. A naked su defaults to root.

sudo

Runs a command as root (or another user). This may be used in a script, thus permitting a regular user to run the script.

#!/bin/bash

# Some commands.

sudo cp /root/secretfile /home/bozo/secret

# Some more commands.

The file /etc/sudoers holds the names of users permitted to invoke sudo.

passwd

Sets, changes, or manages a user's password.

Show users' logged in time, as read from /var/log/wtmp. This is one of the GNU accounting utilities.

bash$ ac

        total       68.08

last

List last logged in users, as read from /var/log/wtmp. This command can also show remote logins.

For example, to show the last few times the system rebooted:

bash$ last reboot

reboot   system boot  2.6.9-1.667      Fri Feb  4 18:18          (00:02)

 reboot   system boot  2.6.9-1.667      Fri Feb  4 15:20          (01:27)

 reboot   system boot  2.6.9-1.667      Fri Feb  4 12:56          (00:49)

 reboot   system boot  2.6.9-1.667      Thu Feb  3 21:08          (02:17)

 . . .

 wtmp begins Tue Feb  1 12:50:09 2005

newgrp

Change user's group ID without logging out. This permits access to the new group's files. Since users may be members of multiple groups simultaneously, this command finds only limited use.

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2009-11-04T05:38:00.000-08:00

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Linux Shell script exercise with time and date commands

2009-11-03T08:12:00.000-08:00

Time/date and timing

date

Simply invoked, date prints the date and time to stdout. Where this command gets interesting is in its formatting and parsing options.

Example . Using date

#!/bin/bash

# Exercising the 'date' command

echo "The number of days since the year's beginning is `date +%j`."

# Needs a leading '+' to invoke formatting.

# %j gives day of year.

echo "The number of seconds elapsed since 01/01/1970 is `date +%s`."

#  %s yields number of seconds since "UNIX epoch" began,

#+ but how is this useful?

prefix=temp

suffix=$(date +%s)  # The "+%s" option to 'date' is GNU-specific.

filename=$prefix.$suffix

echo "Temporary filename = $filename"

#  It's great for creating "unique and random" temp filenames,

#+ even better than using $$.

# Read the 'date' man page for more formatting options.

exit 0

The -u option gives the UTC (Universal Coordinated Time).

bash$ date

Fri Mar 29 21:07:39 MST 2002

bash$ date -u

Sat Mar 30 04:07:42 UTC 2002

This option facilitates calculating the time between different dates.

Example Date calculations

#!/bin/bash

# date-calc.sh

# Author: Nathan Coulter

# Used in ABS Guide with permission (thanks!).

MPHR=60    # Minutes per hour.

HPD=24     # Hours per day.

diff () {

        printf '%s' $(( $(date -u -d"$TARGET" +%s) -

                        $(date -u -d"$CURRENT" +%s)))

#                       %d = day of month.

CURRENT=$(date -u -d '2007-09-01 17:30:24' '+%F %T.%N %Z')

TARGET=$(date -u -d'2007-12-25 12:30:00' '+%F %T.%N %Z')

# %F = full date, %T = %H:%M:%S, %N = nanoseconds, %Z = time zone.

printf '\nIn 2007, %s ' \

       "$(date -d"$CURRENT +

        $(( $(diff) /$MPHR /$MPHR /$HPD / 2 )) days" '+%d %B')"

#       %B = name of month                ^ halfway

printf 'was halfway between %s ' "$(date -d"$CURRENT" '+%d %B')"

printf 'and %s\n' "$(date -d"$TARGET" '+%d %B')"

printf '\nOn %s at %s, there were\n' \

        $(date -u -d"$CURRENT" +%F) $(date -u -d"$CURRENT" +%T)

DAYS=$(( $(diff) / $MPHR / $MPHR / $HPD ))

CURRENT=$(date -d"$CURRENT +$DAYS days" '+%F %T.%N %Z')

HOURS=$(( $(diff) / $MPHR / $MPHR ))

CURRENT=$(date -d"$CURRENT +$HOURS hours" '+%F %T.%N %Z')

MINUTES=$(( $(diff) / $MPHR ))

CURRENT=$(date -d"$CURRENT +$MINUTES minutes" '+%F %T.%N %Z')

printf '%s days, %s hours, ' "$DAYS" "$HOURS"

printf '%s minutes, and %s seconds ' "$MINUTES" "$(diff)"

printf 'until Christmas Dinner!\n\n'

#  Exercise:

#  --------

#  Rewrite the diff () function to accept passed parameters,

#+ rather than using global variables.

The date command has quite a number of output options. For example %N gives the nanosecond portion of the current time. One interesting use for this is to generate random integers.

date +%N | sed -e 's/000$//' -e 's/^0//'

           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

#  Strip off leading and trailing zeroes, if present.

#  Length of generated integer depends on

#+ how many zeroes stripped off.

# 115281032

# 63408725

# 394504284

There are many more options (try man date).

date +%j

# Echoes day of the year (days elapsed since January 1).

date +%k%M

# Echoes hour and minute in 24-hour format, as a single digit string.

# The 'TZ' parameter permits overriding the default time zone.

date                 # Mon Mar 28 21:42:16 MST 2005

TZ=EST date          # Mon Mar 28 23:42:16 EST 2005

# Thanks, Frank Kannemann and Pete Sjoberg, for the tip.

SixDaysAgo=$(date --date='6 days ago')

OneMonthAgo=$(date --date='1 month ago')  # Four weeks back (not a month!)

OneYearAgo=$(date --date='1 year ago')

zdump

Time zone dump: echoes the time in a specified time zone.

bash$ zdump EST

EST  Tue Sep 18 22:09:22 2001 EST

time

Outputs verbose timing statistics for executing a command.

time ls -l / gives something like this:

real    0m0.067s

 user    0m0.004s

 sys     0m0.005s

As of VERSION 2.0 of Bash, time became a shell reserved word, with slightly altered behavior in a pipeline.

touch

Utility for updating access/modification times of a file to current system time or other specified time, but also useful for creating a new file. The commandtouch zzz will create a new file of zero length, named zzz, assuming that zzz did not previously exist. Time-stamping empty files in this way is useful for storing date information, for example in keeping track of modification times on a project.

The touch command is equivalent to : >> newfile or >> newfile (for ordinary files).

Before doing a cp -u (copy/update), use touch to update the time stamp of files you don't wish overwritten.

As an example, if the directory /home/bozo/tax_audit contains the files spreadsheet-051606.data, spreadsheet-051706.data, and spreadsheet-051806.data, then doing a touch spreadsheet*.data will protect these files from being overwritten by files with the same names during a cp -u /home/bozo/financial_info/spreadsheet*data /home/bozo/tax_audit.

The at job control command executes a given set of commands at a specified time. Superficially, it resembles cron, however, at is chiefly useful for one-time execution of a command set.

at 2pm January 15 prompts for a set of commands to execute at that time. These commands should be shell-script compatible, since, for all practical purposes, the user is typing in an executable shell script a line at a time. Input terminates with a CTRL+D.

Using either the -f option or input redirection (<), at reads a command list from a file. This file is an executable shell script, though it should, of course, be non-interactive. Particularly clever is including the run-parts command in the file to execute a different set of scripts.

bash$ at 2:30 am Friday <>

job 2 at 2000-10-27 02:30

batch

The batch job control command is similar to at, but it runs a command list when the system load drops below .8. Like at, it can read commands from a file with the -f option.

The concept of batch processing dates back to the era of mainframe computers. It means running a set of commands without user intervention.

cal

Prints a neatly formatted monthly calendar to stdout. Will do current year or a large range of past and future years.

sleep

This is the shell equivalent of a wait loop. It pauses for a specified number of seconds, doing nothing. It can be useful for timing or in processes running in the background, checking for a specific event every so often (polling).

sleep 3     # Pauses 3 seconds.

The sleep command defaults to seconds, but minute, hours, or days may also be specified.

sleep 3 h   # Pauses 3 hours!

The watch command may be a better choice than sleep for running commands at timed intervals.

usleep

Microsleep (the u may be read as the Greek mu, or micro- prefix). This is the same as sleep, above, but "sleeps" in microsecond intervals. It can be used for fine-grained timing, or for polling an ongoing process at very frequent intervals.

usleep 30     # Pauses 30 microseconds.

This command is part of the Red Hat initscripts / rc-scripts package.

The usleep command does not provide particularly accurate timing, and is therefore unsuitable for critical timing loops.

hwclock, clock

The hwclock command accesses or adjusts the machine's hardware clock. Some options require root privileges. The /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit startup file uses hwclock to set the system time from the hardware clock at bootup.

The clock command is a synonym for hwclock.

golfsport in Germany

2009-11-03T08:00:00.000-08:00

If you ever want to know about the history and winner in golfsport in Germany then the year comes is 1911. In that time golf tournament was was first staged and the winner was Harry Vardon.

In the next year the champion was another of the Great Triumvirate of late 19th and early 20th century British golfers, John Henry Taylor.

After that for about 10 years the tournament was cancelled. But it was played each year from 1926 to 1939. During these time, Percy Alliss won five times, Auguste Boyer four times and Henry Cotton three.

After World War II the event wasn't revived until 1951. It was a European Tour event from the tour's first official season in 1972 until 1999. It was played on many different courses around Germany; the last two stagings on the European Tour were at Sporting Club Berlin. It first had a title sponsor in 1978 and there were several different sponsors over the following two decades. In the 1980s and 1990s Germany's greatest 20th century golfer Bernhard Langer equalled Percy Alliss's record of five wins. In 1999 the prize fund was €1,005,982, and despite its national open status the tournament was only the fourth richest European Tour event played in Germany that year, behind the German Masters, the Deutsche Bank-SAP Open TPC of Europe and the BMW International Open.

Annually, the lowest scoring amateur at the German Open receives the coveted "Haubenreich Trophy", named in honor of the Haubenreich family. The Haubenreich family long-owned a German golf superstore in Stuttgart (Golfenreich), and is recognized for its tremendous contributions to German golf.

The family can trace its roots back to a Teutonic Knight named Hans Haubenreich who is credited with orchestrating the Knights' victory over a Hun-related tribe at the Battle of Brestacre. Haubenreich claimed Brestacre for the Knights, and the family has upheld the Brest legacy ever since.

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